We used rosters of the Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of America to identify potential cases and peer-nominated controls to explore the reported association between oral contraceptives and inflammatory bowel disease. Overall, women who used oral contraceptives were at increased risk of developing Crohn's disease (odds ratio = 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.99-2.26). The findings persisted after adjustment for age at symptom onset, decade of onset, education, marital status, and location of disease. There was an interaction with cigarette smoking; the risk associated with oral contraceptives was elevated in current smokers (odds ratio = 2.64, 95% CI = 1.22-5.75), but not in former smokers or never-smokers. The risk was not elevated for ulcerative colitis (odds ratio = 1.10, 95% CI = 0.65-1.85).
PMID 1637902 1637902 DOI 10.1097/00001648-199207000-00014 10.1097/00001648-199207000-00014 Sandler et al. 1992, Sandler 1992
Cite this article
Sandler, R., Wurzelmann, J. I., & Lyles, C. (1992). Oral contraceptive use and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 3(4), 374-378. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199207000-00014
Sandler R, Wurzelmann JI, Lyles C. Oral contraceptive use and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease. Epidemiology. 1992;3(4):374-378. doi:10.1097/00001648-199207000-00014
Sandler, Robert, et al. "Oral contraceptive use and the risk of inflammatory bowel disease." Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), vol. 3, no. 4, 1992, pp. 374-378.
Previous epidemiological studies suggesting an association between oral contraceptive use and ulcerative colitis incidence have been weak and conflicting. To measure a possible association, 46 incident cases of ulcerative colitis patients, women aged 18-50 years, were compared with peer-nominated age-matched and sex-matched controls. There were no differences between case and control patients in demographic characteristics. There was no association between oral contraceptive use and ulcerative colitis (current use: odds ratio 0.70, 95% confidence interval 0.27-1.83; former use: odds ratio 1.14, confidence interval 0.41-3.15; current or former use: odds ratio 0.86, confidence interval 0.40-1.85). Stratifying by disease location (pancolitis or left-sided disease) also failed to identify an association. Controlling for possible confounding effects of cigarette smoking did not alter the lack of association between oral contraceptive use and ulcerative colitis. Similarly, testing for interaction failed to demonstrate any effect modification. Analyzing for duration of current oral contraceptive use or time interval since last use failed to demonstrate a "dose-response" effect. The study was of sufficient size to detect statistical significance for oral contraceptive use for odds ratios of 2.8 and higher. In this matched case-control study of incident cases and community controls, there was no association between oral contraceptive use and ulcerative colitis incidence. To date, there is no evidence suggesting that women predisposed to the development of ulcerative colitis should be advised to avoid oral contraceptive use.
Mengelkoch S et al., 2024·Brain, behavior, and immunity
Women using hormonal contraceptives (HCs) exhibit numerous signs of chronic inflammation, including elevated C-reactive protein levels and greater risk of developing mood and autoimmune disorders. However, users and non-users of HCs often have similar circulating proinflammatory cytokine levels, making the mechanism of association unclear. One possible explanation for this paradox is that HC users exhibit differences in their inflammatory responses to psychosocial stress that, over time, could contribute to chronic inflammation and its pathologies. Here, we tested this possibility by examining women's glucocorticoid, inflammatory, and psychological responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) in 67 naturally cycling (NC) and 60 oral HC-using women (Mage = 19.31, SDage = 1.95). As hypothesized, HC users and NC women exhibited different glucocorticoid and proinflammatory cytokine responses to the TSST. For NC women, TSST-induced increases in glucocorticoids were uncommon, and increases in glucocorticoids were accompanied by elevations in IL-6. In contrast, for women using HCs, increases in glucocorticoids in response to the TSST were common, and increases in glucocorticoids were accompanied by increases in TNF-α. HC users and NC women also differed in their psychological responses to the TSST, with HC users reporting elevated stress levels compared to NC women. Together, these results suggest that HC use impacts women's glucocorticoid, inflammatory, and psychological responses to psychosocial stress, potentially contributing to observed differences in these women's mental and physical health.
Pasvol TJ et al., 2022·Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics
How contraceptive formulation, dose, duration of therapy and mode of delivery affects the risk of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is poorly described. To examine associations between types of hormonal contraception and development of IBD. This was a nested case-control study using IQVIA Medical Research Data. Women aged 15-49 years with a new diagnosis of IBD were matched with up to six controls by age, practice and year. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for incident IBD and use of contraception were calculated. 4932 incident cases of IBD were matched to 29 340 controls. Use of combined oral contraceptive pills (COCPs) was associated with the development of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (OR 1.60 [1.41-1.82] and 1.30 [1.15-1.45], respectively). Each additional month of COCP exposure per year of follow-up increased risk of Crohn's disease by 6.4% (5.1%-7.7%) and ulcerative colitis by 3.3% (2.1%-4.4%). Progestogen-only pills had no effect on Crohn's disease risk (OR 1.09 [0.84-1.40]) but there was a modest association with ulcerative colitis (OR 1.35 [1.12-1.64]). Parenteral contraception was not associated with the development of Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis (OR 1.15 [0.99-1.47] and 1.17 [0.98-1.39], respectively). We observed an increase in the risk of IBD with increasing duration of exposure to COCPs. Progestogen-only pills were not associated with Crohn's disease but there was a modest association with ulcerative colitis. There was no association between parenteral progestogen-only contraception and IBD. These findings are broadly consistent with a hypothesis that the oestrogen component of contraception may drive IBD pathogenesis.
It has been well documented that female sex is a significant risk factor for the development of various autoimmune diseases. While the reason for this has been debated, one well-regarded theory is that increased estrogen and decreased testosterone play a role in this predisposition. Interstitial cystitis (IC), also known as painful bladder syndrome (PBS), is an autoimmune disorder that affects over nine million women in the United States. It presents with pelvic and bladder pain and urinary symptoms, both of which significantly and negatively affect the quality of life. Even so, very few studies have examined the pathophysiologic relationship between autoimmune disorders and hormonal contraceptives. In this report, we present a case of IC likely precipitated by oral contraceptives (OCPs) in a premenopausal female. Shortly after beginning OCPs, this patient developed symptoms of severe pelvic pain and increased urinary frequency. Over the course of a year, the patient was diagnosed and treated for a variety of conditions, such as urinary tract infection (UTI), fungal vaginitis, and nephrolithiasis. After consultation with a gynecologist, a normal abdominal CT scan, and unsuccessful cystoscopy due to pain, she was finally diagnosed with IC. The patient independently learned of a potential link between hormonal contraceptive pills and IC and decided to discontinue this method of birth control. Following this, her symptoms completely resolved within several months. The timing of her initiation and discontinuation of OCPs, alongside her symptomatology, suggest a connection to the development of IC. A literature review was performed, which supports this association. We, therefore, highlight this case as an important example of IC precipitated by OCPs.